Human Anatomy and Biophysical Functioning Training

Objectives:
• Define anatomy and physiology and explain their relationship.
• Identify the levels of structural organisation in the human body.
• Describe the basic life processes and the requirements for maintaining life.
• Use appropriate anatomical terminology to describe body regions and directions.

Topics:
• Overview of anatomy and physiology
• Levels of structural organisation: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
• Basic life processes: metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction
• Homeostasis and feedback systems
• Anatomical position, directional terms, body planes, and regions
• Body cavities and membranes
• Medical imaging techniques

Objectives:
• Describe the structure of atoms, molecules, and chemical bonds.
• Differentiate between inorganic and organic compounds essential for life.
• Explain the role of water, acids, bases, and buffers in the body.
• Identify the major classes of organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Topics:
• Atoms, elements, isotopes, and ions
• Chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, hydrogen, van der Waals
• Inorganic compounds: water, salts, acids, bases, buffers
• Organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
• Energy, ATP, and chemical reactions
• Enzymes and factors affecting enzyme activity

Objectives:
• Describe the structure and function of the plasma membrane.
• Identify the major organelles and their functions.
• Explain the processes of cellular transport: diffusion, osmosis, active transport.
• Outline the cell cycle and the process of cell division (mitosis and meiosis).

Topics:
• Cell theory and cell diversity
• Plasma membrane: structure (fluid mosaic model) and functions
• Membrane transport: passive and active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis
• Cytoplasm and organelles: nucleus, ribosomes, ER, Golgi, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton
• Cell cycle: interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis
• Meiosis and gametogenesis

Objectives:
• Identify the four basic types of tissues and their general characteristics.
• Describe the structure, location, and function of epithelial tissues.
• Describe the structure, location, and function of connective tissues.
• Differentiate between the three types of muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

Topics:
• Epithelial tissue: covering and lining, glandular; classification by shape and layering
• Connective tissue: proper, cartilage, bone, blood; extracellular matrix and fibres
• Muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, smooth
• Nervous tissue: neurons, neuroglia
• Tissue repair and regeneration
• Membranes: cutaneous, mucous, serous, synovial

Objectives:
• Describe the layers of the skin and their functions.
• Explain the process of keratinisation and its role in skin protection.
• Identify the accessory structures of the skin: hair, glands, nails.
• Discuss the functions of the skin in thermoregulation, sensation, and vitamin D synthesis.

Topics:
• Epidermis: layers, keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells
• Dermis: papillary and reticular layers, blood supply, nerve endings
• Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
• Skin colour: melanin, carotene, haemoglobin
• Accessory structures: hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, nails
• Functions of the integumentary system
• Skin disorders and burns

Objectives:
• Describe the structure and classification of bones.
• Identify the major bones of the axial and appendicular skeleton.
• Explain the process of bone formation, growth, and remodelling.
• Describe the types and functions of joints.

Topics:
• Bone tissue: compact and spongy bone, osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts
• Bone development: intramembranous and endochondral ossification
• Axial skeleton: skull, vertebral column, rib cage
• Appendicular skeleton: pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, lower limbs
• Joints: fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial; types of movement
• Common skeletal disorders: fractures, osteoporosis, arthritis

Objectives:
• Describe the microscopic structure of skeletal muscle fibres.
• Explain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.
• Identify the major skeletal muscles of the body and their actions.
• Differentiate between the three types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

Topics:
• Skeletal muscle tissue: structure from whole muscle to myofilaments
• Neuromuscular junction and excitation-contraction coupling
• Sliding filament theory
• Muscle metabolism: aerobic vs anaerobic, fatigue
• Types of muscle contraction: isotonic, isometric
• Major skeletal muscles: head, neck, trunk, upper limb, lower limb
• Cardiac and smooth muscle structure and function

Objectives:
• Describe the structure and function of neurons and neuroglia.
• Explain the generation and propagation of action potentials.
• Describe the structure of a synapse and the process of synaptic transmission.
• Identify the major divisions of the nervous system and their functions.

Topics:
• Neurons: structure, classification, neuroglia
• Membrane potentials: resting, graded, action potentials
• Synaptic transmission: chemical and electrical synapses, neurotransmitters
• Central nervous system: brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem), spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system: cranial nerves, spinal nerves, plexuses
• Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
• Sensory and motor pathways

Objectives:
• Compare the nervous and endocrine systems in terms of communication and response.
• Identify the major endocrine glands and their hormones.
• Explain the mechanisms of hormone action: steroid vs nonsteroid hormones.
• Describe the feedback loops that regulate hormone secretion.

Topics:
• Endocrine vs exocrine glands; hormone chemistry
• Hypothalamus and pituitary gland: posterior and anterior pituitary hormones
• Thyroid and parathyroid glands: thyroid hormones, calcitonin, PTH
• Adrenal glands: adrenal cortex (cortisol, aldosterone) and medulla (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
• Pancreas: insulin, glucagon, diabetes mellitus
• Gonads: sex hormones
• Pineal gland, thymus, and other endocrine tissues

Objectives:
• Describe the composition and functions of blood.
• Identify the formed elements of blood and their roles.
• Describe the structure of the heart and the flow of blood through it.
• Explain the cardiac cycle and the conduction system of the heart.

Topics:
• Blood: plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
• Haemostasis: vascular spasm, platelet plug, coagulation cascade
• Blood types and transfusion compatibility
• Heart anatomy: chambers, valves, great vessels
• Coronary circulation
• Cardiac cycle: systole, diastole, heart sounds
• Cardiac conduction system: SA node, AV node, Purkinje fibres
• Electrocardiogram (ECG) basics

Objectives:
• Compare the structure and function of arteries, veins, and capillaries.
• Describe the systemic, pulmonary, and coronary circulations.
• Explain the factors that influence blood pressure and its regulation.
• Discuss the mechanisms of capillary exchange.

Topics:
• Blood vessel structure: tunics, types
• Systemic circulation: major arteries and veins
• Pulmonary circulation
• Hepatic portal circulation and fetal circulation
• Blood pressure: systolic, diastolic, pulse pressure, mean arterial pressure
• Regulation of blood pressure: neural, hormonal, renal mechanisms
• Capillary exchange: diffusion, filtration, reabsorption
• Circulatory shock and homeostasis

Objectives:
• Describe the components and functions of the lymphatic system.
• Explain the process of lymph formation and circulation.
• Differentiate between innate and adaptive immunity.
• Describe the roles of B cells and T cells in immune responses.

Topics:
• Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils
• Lymphatic circulation and oedema
• Innate immunity: physical barriers, phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, fever
• Adaptive immunity: antigens, antibodies, lymphocytes
• Humoral immunity: B cells, plasma cells, antibodies
• Cell-mediated immunity: T cells, cytotoxic and helper T cells
• Immunological memory, vaccination, and immune disorders

Objectives:
• Identify the structures of the respiratory system and their functions.
• Describe the mechanics of pulmonary ventilation.
• Explain the principles of gas exchange and transport.
• Discuss the regulation of respiration.

Topics:
• Upper respiratory tract: nose, pharynx, larynx
• Lower respiratory tract: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
• Pulmonary ventilation: inspiration, expiration, pressures
• Lung volumes and capacities: spirometry
• Gas exchange: partial pressures, diffusion across respiratory membrane
• Oxygen transport: haemoglobin, oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
• Carbon dioxide transport: bicarbonate, carbamino compounds
• Control of respiration: medullary centres, chemoreceptors

Objectives:
• Describe the anatomy of the digestive tract and accessory organs.
• Explain the processes of digestion, absorption, and elimination.
• Identify the major enzymes and secretions involved in digestion.
• Discuss the regulation of digestive activities.

Topics:
• Oral cavity: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, mastication, deglutition
• Oesophagus and stomach: anatomy, gastric juice, regulation
• Small intestine: duodenum, jejunum, ileum; digestion and absorption
• Large intestine: structure, functions, defecation reflex
• Accessory organs: liver (bile, functions), gallbladder, pancreas (pancreatic juice)
• Enzymes and hormones of digestion
• Nutrient absorption pathways
• Disorders of the digestive system

Objectives:
• Describe the structure of the kidneys and the nephron.
• Explain the processes of glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and secretion.
• Outline the formation of urine and its composition.
• Discuss the role of the kidneys in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.

Topics:
• Kidney anatomy: cortex, medulla, renal pelvis
• Nephron: glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct
• Glomerular filtration: filtration membrane, pressures, GFR regulation
• Tubular reabsorption: glucose, water, ions; transport mechanisms
• Tubular secretion: hydrogen, potassium, drugs
• Urine concentration and dilution: countercurrent multiplier
• Fluid balance: ADH, aldosterone, ANP
• Acid-base balance: bicarbonate buffer system, renal compensation

Objectives:
• Describe the anatomy of the male and female reproductive systems.
• Explain the process of gametogenesis: spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
• Outline the hormonal regulation of the male and female reproductive cycles.
• Discuss the events from fertilisation to birth.

Topics:
• Male reproductive system: testes, ducts, accessory glands, penis
• Spermatogenesis, androgens, male sex hormones
• Female reproductive system: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia
• Oogenesis, ovarian cycle, menstrual cycle
• Hormonal control: GnRH, FSH, LH, oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone
• Fertilisation, implantation, embryonic and fetal development
• Parturition, lactation
• Contraception and sexually transmitted infections

Objectives:
• Explain how multiple organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis.
• Analyse case studies involving disruption of homeostasis (e.g., dehydration, infection, stress).
• Discuss the impact of lifestyle factors (diet, exercise, smoking) on body systems.
• Review key anatomical and physiological principles across all systems.

Topics:
• Interrelationships among systems: examples of integration
• Homeostatic imbalances: diabetes, hypertension, respiratory acidosis, renal failure
• Stress response: nervous and endocrine coordination
• Age-related changes in body systems
• Review of major concepts: feedback loops, transport, communication, protection
• Case study analysis: clinical scenarios
• Preparation for assessment